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Sacred, Banned & Booming: The Complete Story of Cannabis in India

India's relationship with cannabis defies simple characterization—it is simultaneously one of the world's largest cannabis-consuming nations and a country with harsh prohibition laws. 31 million Indians (2.83% of the population aged 10-75) currently use cannabis products, with Delhi ranking third globally for consumption at 38.2 tonnes annually.


# The Complete Canvas — India's Cannabis Tapestry ## A Single Comprehensive Image Capturing Every Dimension --- **Overall Concept & Composition Structure:** An extraordinarily detailed, large-scale surrealist-realist composite image in the style of a traditional Indian miniature painting meets magical realism, organized as a massive vertical scroll or mural (aspect ratio 9:16 or 2:3 vertical) that can be viewed as a cohesive whole or explored section by section. The composition flows from the cosmic/divine at the top, through the earthly/human in the middle, to the underground/shadow economy at the bottom—mirroring the journey of cannabis through Indian society from sacred to prohibited to emerging legal frameworks. The image is divided into interconnected zones that bleed into each other organically, connected by a single massive cannabis plant that serves as the central axis/spine of the entire composition—its roots reaching into the underground economy at the bottom, its trunk passing through human society in the middle, and its flowering tops reaching toward the divine realm at the top. This plant is both literal and metaphorical, its form subtly transforming as it passes through each zone. --- ## ZONE 1: THE DIVINE REALM (Top 20% of image) **The Cosmic Origin — Samudra Manthan & Shiva's Blessing** The uppermost portion depicts a stylized cosmic scene rendered in the rich colors and gold leaf accents of Rajasthani miniature painting tradition, but with photorealistic details in key elements. **Central Divine Figure:** Lord Shiva sits in padmasana atop Mount Kailash, rendered in classic iconographic style but with extraordinary detail. His skin is ash-blue (the color of the poison Halahala he consumed), third eye partially open emitting a soft golden light, crescent moon nestled in his matted jata (dreadlocks) which cascade down like the Ganges herself. His eyes are half-lidded—the classical "cannabis gaze" depicted in centuries of Indian art—expressing transcendent bliss. Around his neck coils Vasuki, the serpent king, scales individually detailed in iridescent blue-green. He holds a brass chillum in his lower right hand, from which rises a stream of sacred smoke that transforms into the Milky Way galaxy as it ascends. His upper right hand holds a trishul (trident), upper left a damaru (drum), lower left rests in varada mudra (blessing gesture). He is seated on a tiger skin over a lotus, with the snow peaks of Kailash rendered in silver and white behind him. **Flanking Cosmic Elements:** To Shiva's left: A stylized depiction of the Samudra Manthan (churning of the cosmic ocean)—the serpent Vasuki wrapped around Mount Mandara, Devas and Asuras pulling on either end, with a single cannabis plant emerging from a drop of spilled amrit (nectar of immortality), its leaves glowing with divine golden light. Small details include: the fourteen treasures emerging from the ocean, Goddess Lakshmi on her lotus, the moon, and the pot of amrit itself. To Shiva's right: Goddess Parvati in her benevolent form, also seated in meditation, representing the feminine divine principle. At her feet, a small shrine with offerings including cannabis leaves, flowers, and a lit diya. Behind her, the peaks where legend says she and Shiva brought cannabis seeds to the Parvati Valley (visible far below in the earthly realm). **Vedic Text Elements:** Floating in the cosmic ether around the divine figures: Sanskrit verses from the Atharvaveda in elegant Devanagari script, slightly translucent like they're written on clouds—specifically the passage naming bhanga among the five sacred plants: "पञ्च राज्यानि वीरुधां सोमश्रेष्ठानि ब्रूमः। दर्भो भङ्गो यवः सह ते नो मुञ्चन्त्व् अंहसः" (We speak of the five kingdoms of plants, with Soma the best. Darbha, hemp, barley, saha—may they free us from distress). These float like cosmic mantras in gold leaf against deep indigo space studded with stars arranged in auspicious patterns (nakshatras). **Transitional Element:** The sacred smoke from Shiva's chillum descends and transforms, becoming the atmospheric haze that fills the next zone, carrying the divine blessing downward into the human realm. Hidden within the smoke patterns: subtle faces of rishis, yogis, and the authors of ancient Ayurvedic texts (Charaka, Sushruta) whose works codified cannabis medicine. --- ## ZONE 2: THE FESTIVAL REALM (Next 15% — Celebration & Tradition) **The Great Festivals — Holi, Mahashivratri & Sacred Consumption** This zone bursts with color and movement, depicting the living festival traditions where cannabis consumption is not only legal but sacred. **Left Section — Varanasi Mahashivratri:** The famous ghats of Varanasi rendered in intricate detail during Mahashivratri night. Thousands of small figures crowd the stone steps leading down to the Ganges, which reflects the light of countless oil lamps (deepawali). The scene is illuminated by the orange glow of ritual fires and the silver light of a full moon. Prominent figures include: - A group of Naga Sadhus in the foreground, their ash-smeared bodies almost glowing in the firelight, matted locks piled high, sitting in a circle passing a large clay chillum. Each sadhu has distinct characteristics—one very old with a flowing white beard, one younger and muscular, one with elaborate rudraksha malas covering his entire torso. Their expressions range from deep meditation to ecstatic joy. - A temple priest (pujari) in white dhoti preparing bhang prasad at a small shrine, grinding leaves in a traditional stone mortar (sil-batta). - Families—including women in colorful sarees and children—receiving prasad that includes bhang, depicting normalized religious consumption. - The spires of Kashi Vishwanath Temple rising in the background, its gold dome catching moonlight. - Flower sellers with baskets of marigolds and roses. - A government-licensed bhang shop (with visible "Sarkari Bhang" signage in Hindi) with a queue of customers. **Center Section — Holi Celebration:** An explosion of color depicting Holi in Mathura/Vrindavan. The scene is absolutely drenched in gulal powder—clouds of pink, yellow, orange, green, and purple fill the air. Figures are barely recognizable under layers of color, but their joy is unmistakable. Key elements: - A traditional bhang preparation scene: women grinding cannabis leaves with almonds, pistachios, cardamom, and rose petals in a large brass vessel, adding milk to create thandai. Children watch eagerly. An elderly grandmother oversees, representing generational transmission of tradition. - Men drinking from terracotta kulhads, green thandai dripping from their colored-powder-covered beards, arms raised in celebration. - A decorated white bull (Nandi, Shiva's vehicle) garlanded with marigolds, being fed bhang-laced sweets by devotees. - Musicians playing dhol and nagara drums, dancers in traditional attire. - In the background, the ornate temples of Vrindavan with their distinctive architecture. - Plates of bhang pakoras, bhang gujiya (stuffed sweets), and bhang ladoos visible on a food stall. - A sign reading "भांग की दुकान" (Bhang Shop) with government license number visible. **Right Section — Kumbh Mela Gathering:** A portion of the massive Kumbh Mela gathering, focusing on the Sadhu camps. Thousands of tents stretch toward the horizon. In the foreground, a group of Aghori sadhus—their practices more extreme—with human skull begging bowls, bodies smeared with cremation-ground ash, consuming bhang as part of their daily sadhana. Their expressions are intense, otherworldly. Nearby, a group of more conventional sadhus engage in philosophical discussion while sharing a chillum. Pilgrims from all walks of life move through the camp—businessmen in Western clothes, village women in traditional dress, young backpackers—all equally welcome in this temporary city of spiritual seeking. **Transitional Element:** A river of people flows downward from this zone, carrying the festival energy into the everyday human realm below. Some carry brass lotas (pots) of Ganges water, others carry bundles of cannabis leaves. A sadhu walks downward, his feet leaving the festival realm and entering ordinary society. --- ## ZONE 3: THE HUMAN REALM — LEGAL PATCHWORK (Central 25% — largest zone) **The Great Indian Paradox — Same Plant, Different Laws** This is the most complex zone, depicting the contradictory legal landscape across Indian states through a map-like but humanized representation. India's geographic outline is suggested but not rigidly defined—states flow into each other like the patchwork they represent legally. **Upper Left — Uttarakhand Hemp Pioneering:** Terraced hemp fields in the Himalayan foothills, rendered with loving agricultural detail. Cannabis sativa plants stand 2-3 meters tall in neat rows following the mountain contours. Key elements: - A farmer in traditional Garhwali attire (white kurta, woolen topi, rough wool jacket) examining hemp plants, comparing two samples—one indigenous strain (taller, THC-rich), one imported seed variety (shorter, CBD-focused)—representing the 0.3% THC compliance challenge. - A government official in khaki with clipboard, measuring plants, taking samples—representing the licensing and regulatory framework. - The Centre for Aromatic Plants building visible in the distance (Selaqui, Dehradun)—a modern facility among ancient terraces. - Stacks of harvested hemp stalks being processed into fiber. - A small laboratory setup where a scientist in white coat tests THC levels with modern equipment. - Signs reading "Licensed Hemp Cultivation Zone — Uttarakhand Forest Department" in Hindi and English. - Wild cannabis growing on uncultivated hillsides nearby, under separate "collection licenses." - Mountain village with traditional architecture in the background. - A startup entrepreneur (young, urban-dressed) meeting with traditional farmers, representing the new hemp industry. **Upper Center — Himachal Pradesh's Double Life:** A dramatic split representation of Himachal—one side showing the famous Parvati Valley's illicit charas production, the other showing the new legal pilot program. Illegal side (rendered slightly darker, more secretive): - The remote village of Malana perched on a steep hillside, traditional wooden houses with slate roofs. - Villagers hand-rubbing cannabis plants to collect resin, the traditional charas-making technique—close-up detail of resin-covered palms, the green-brown sticky substance accumulating. - A scale weighing a tola (11.66 grams) of finished charas—dark, compressed, aromatic. - In shadows: a transaction occurring, rupee notes changing hands. - A sign pointing toward "Tosh," "Kasol," "Rashol"—famous production villages. - Hidden among the peaks: the ghost of "Malana Cream" reputation floating like mist—perhaps a stylized High Times Cannabis Cup trophy (1994, 1996 victories). Legal side (rendered brighter, more official): - A fenced cultivation facility with CCTV cameras on posts (24-hour surveillance requirement). - Geo-tagged plants with QR codes. - Laboratory facilities processing legal medical cannabis. - Government officials inspecting, signing permits. - The 2024 state assembly resolution floating as a document in the air. - Police simultaneously conducting enforcement—destroying plants with machetes in illegal areas while protecting licensed operations. **Upper Right — Rajasthan's Government Bhang Infrastructure:** The golden stone architecture of Jaisalmer/Jaipur providing backdrop to legal bhang commerce. Key elements: - A famous multi-generational bhang shop with "Since 1970s" painted on weathered walls, the shopkeeper (third generation) in traditional turban weighing bhang on old brass scales. - Government excise department license prominently displayed, with ₹10,000 fee documentation visible. - Varieties labeled: bhang powder, bhang paste, ready-made thandai, bhang chocolate, bhang cookies. - Tourists (both Indian and foreign) purchasing alongside locals. - A camel caravan passing in the background—traditional Rajasthan imagery. - Havelis with intricate jharokha windows overlooking the scene. - A small inset showing: bhang being imported from Uttar Pradesh in sacks, crossing state lines legally—representing the interstate legal trade. **Center Left — Uttar Pradesh (Varanasi Focus Extended):** Beyond the festival scenes above, the everyday bhang economy of UP. Key elements: - The famous Badal Thandai shop in Gowdolia Chowk, customers lined up. - Blue Lassi shop with its 75 varieties menu board visible. - A doctor's clinic with "Ayurvedic Cannabis Consultation" sign—representing the medical pathway. - CSIR-NBRI research facility (Lucknow) where hemp R&D license was issued in 2018. - Historical reference: a faded colonial-era document showing "287,926 pounds consumed in 1934-35" floating like a ghost of history. - The license cost (₹2 million) represented as stacks of rupee notes on a shop counter. **Center — Delhi NCR Contradiction:** India's capital depicted as a study in contrasts. Key elements: - The Red Fort and India Gate in hazy background (Delhi's famous pollution contributing to atmosphere). - A government bhang shop in Noida, legitimate and licensed. - Simultaneously: Paharganj area near New Delhi Railway Station with its underground reputation—shadowy figures, narrow lanes, but suggested rather than explicit. - CBD products displayed in a sleek modern retail setting—₹150 million market visualization. - A massive drug bust in progress: police with seized packages, news cameras, officials. - The 38.2 tonnes annual consumption statistic floating as text in smoke-like formation. - Modern high-rises of Gurgaon juxtaposed with old Delhi's narrow galis. **Center Right — Punjab's Crisis:** The darkest section of this zone, rendered in more somber tones—greys, browns, warning reds. Key elements: - The 553-kilometer Pakistan border represented as a dangerous dotted line. - Drones crossing the border at night, carrying packets—179 cases in 2024 visualized as a swarm. - A young man suffering from chitta addiction—gaunt, desperate, representing the 230,000+ opioid-dependent population. - Grieving family members. - Police transfers (10,000+ officers) represented as a mass movement of khaki uniforms. - An "Anti-Chitta Campaign" poster with CM Bhagwant Mann's image. - Cannabis is almost invisible here—overshadowed by the opioid crisis, representing how traditional bhang consumption has become irrelevant against harder drugs. - A small bright spot: a rehabilitation center, people recovering, hope amid darkness. **Lower Left — Gujarat's Prohibition Paradox:** A surreal visual: alcohol bottles with X marks (prohibited) while bhang preparations are openly sold with checkmarks (permitted since 2017). Key elements: - A bhang shop operating freely with "Legal as per Section 23, Gujarat Prohibition Act" signage. - Empty liquor store with shuttered windows. - Minister Pradipsinh Jadeja's quote floating: "prasad of Lord Shiva" / "less intoxicating than ganja." - Mundra Port in the background with shipping containers—some marked with warnings representing ₹21,000 crore seized drugs (2021-2023). - A discovered cannabis plantation being raided by police—the contradiction of legal bhang but illegal cultivation. - Hydroponic growing operation being busted in an Ahmedabad apartment building. **Lower Center — Maharashtra/Mumbai:** The financial capital's relaxed enforcement depicted. Key elements: - Marine Drive and the Mumbai skyline at twilight. - Colaba street scene where cannabis is "relatively accessible"—a subtle transaction in shadows. - Street price board: "₹100-700/gram." - Juxtaposition: the September 2024 Bombay High Court ruling document (ganja = only flowering tops) floating prominently as a landmark decision. - A legal Ayurvedic cannabis clinic—BOHECO's flagship store with its modern wellness aesthetic. - 346 new Anti-Narcotics Task Force positions represented as uniformed figures joining the force. - Bollywood reference: posters of "Go Goa Gone," "Shaitan," "Kapoor & Sons"—films normalizing cannabis use—on a cinema wall. **Lower Right — South India's Strictness:** A stark contrast to the North's relative tolerance. Key elements: - Tamil Nadu: "ZERO CULTIVATION" stamp in bold red across the landscape. Enforcement statistics (68,055 arrests, 109,000 kg seized) as official documents. Police destroying cannabis plants systematically. The 0.1% prevalence rate as a proud statistic. - Kerala: Despite lush Ayurvedic imagery (massage centers, herbal gardens), cannabis is notably absent—the irony visualized. A would-be Ayurvedic cannabis product with an X through it. "No licenses issued" stamp. - Karnataka: Empty shelf where government bhang shops should be, despite legal status—"No Regulatory Framework" sign. But also: Vedi Wellness Centre (India's first medical cannabis clinic) in Koramangala, Bengaluru, operating through legal Ayurvedic channels. - Goa: Beach party scene with strictures—1:00 AM music curfew sign, "No alcohol within 200m of waterline" warnings, police patrolling. Tourist area with both revelry and crackdown simultaneously occurring. A tourism policy document floating: "Goa Tourism Safety Policy 2025." **Transitional Element:** The patchwork of states dissolves downward into the underground economy, legal distinctions becoming blurred, enforcement becoming more prominent. --- ## ZONE 4: THE AYURVEDIC RENAISSANCE (Next 15% — Medicine & Commerce) **Ancient Wisdom, Modern Business — The Medical Cannabis Pathway** This zone bridges traditional medicine and contemporary entrepreneurship, rendered in a style combining classical Ayurvedic manuscript illustrations with modern corporate aesthetics. **Left Section — Classical Foundation:** A visualization of the Ayurvedic textual tradition. Key elements: - Ancient palm-leaf manuscripts (Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Sharngadhara Samhita) spread open, Sanskrit verses visible, cannabis (Vijaya) highlighted in gold. - 191 classical formulations represented as a flowing chart connecting ancient texts to modern products. - A traditional Ayurvedic physician (Vaidya) in classical attire grinding cannabis leaves with other herbs in a stone mortar—exactly as done for millennia. - Trailokya Vijaya Vati being prepared: cannabis leaf + Vansh Lochan (bamboo) combined into traditional tablets. - The Schedule E-1 classification document from the Drugs and Cosmetics Act. - Ministry of AYUSH logo presiding over the scene, with the January 2022 affirmation document floating like an official blessing. - The September 2024 clarification notice visible: "no endorsement of cannabis experts/hempvaidyas/cannabis doctors" as unofficial specializations. **Center Section — Modern Medical Infrastructure:** The contemporary medical cannabis ecosystem. Key elements: - A modern Ayurvedic cannabis clinic waiting room: patients with various conditions (cancer, chronic pain, anxiety) waiting for consultations. A digital queue display. Professional yet warm atmosphere. - Doctor consultation in progress—Ayurvedic practitioner in white coat with stethoscope AND traditional elements (rudraksha mala), prescribing cannabis formulation while viewing patient records on tablet. - Product display showcasing full range: Vijaya oils in various potencies (500mg to 6500mg), tablets, topicals, pet products (Awshad's pet CBD line). - Multiple brand logos subtly present: BOHECO, Hempstreet, Awshad, Cannazo, CannaBlithe, HempCann. - D2C website interface on a smartphone—doctor consultation feature, prescription verification system. - Hempstreet's "60,000+ trained doctors across 18,000+ clinics" network visualized as a map of India with connected points. - Blockchain "seed to sale" tracking visualization—from farm to patient. **Right Section — Startup Ecosystem & Investment:** The business dimension of medical cannabis. Key elements: - BOHECO's journey visualized: founding date (2013), investment rounds ($9.53 million across 10 rounds), prominent investors' names floating (the late Ratan Tata, Rajan Anandan, IIMA Ventures). - Revenue growth chart: ₹5.3 crore → ₹7.5 crore (FY2025), 30-40% month-on-month growth trajectory. - Hempstreet's $3 million funding, international partnership flags (UK/MGC Pharma, Israel/Gynica). - Cannarma's ₹17 crore pre-seed valuation document. - Market projections floating: "$13.13 million (2023) → $26 million (2028)" for medical cannabis; "$173 million (2021) → $1.75 billion (2029)" for Asia-Pacific CBD. - Young entrepreneurs in modern office settings, laptops open, discussing growth strategies. - Research facilities: CSIR-IIIM (Jammu) working on neuropathies/cancer research; CSIR-IHBT (Palampur) with 500+ farming families. - The first government cannabis research license (2017, CSIR-BOHECO collaboration) framed like an achievement. **Bottom of this zone:** A patient testimonial moment—someone whose life was improved by legal Ayurvedic cannabis, perhaps a cancer patient managing pain or an elderly person with arthritis, expressing gratitude. This humanizes the business/medical content. --- ## ZONE 5: THE SHADOW ECONOMY & ENFORCEMENT (Next 15% — Illicit Trade) **The Underground River — Trafficking, Tribals & Enforcement** This zone is rendered darker, with more contrast between light and shadow, representing the illegal economy that exists parallel to legal frameworks. **Left Section — Odisha's Sheelavathi Dominance:** The tribal cannabis cultivation that supplies 70%+ of India's illicit market. Key elements: - Six mountainous districts labeled: Koraput, Malkangiri, Rayagada, Gajapati, Boudh, Kandhamal—each with distinctive cannabis fields hidden among sal forests. - Tribal cultivators (Adivasi community members in traditional dress) tending plants—their faces showing the complexity of economic necessity versus legal risk. - The economics visualized: ₹10,000 per acre payment from networks, ₹50,000 investment yielding 2.5-3 quintals, selling locally at ₹1,500-2,500/kg but reaching metros at much higher prices. - The distinctive Sheelavathi strain—plants with unique characteristics that have made it dominate the market. - 28,000 hectares destroyed (2021-2023) shown as burned/cut fields—police and forest officials with machetes. - 102.2 tonnes seized (January-July 2024) visualized as a massive pile. - Naxalite presence suggested in shadows—armed figures in forest, representing the security dimension. **Center Section — Trafficking Networks:** The routes and methods of illegal distribution. Key elements: - A map of India with glowing trafficking routes connecting production centers (Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Manipur, Himachal Pradesh) to consumption centers (Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai). - Various transport methods: trucks with hidden compartments on highways, trains with concealed packages, motorcycles on rural roads. - The interstate nature visualized: crossing state borders where laws change. - Communication technology: encrypted phones, hawala transactions, coded messages. - Different product forms moving through networks: loose ganja in sacks, pressed charas in small balls, processed products. **Right Section — Enforcement Response:** The government's war on drugs. Key elements: - NCB (Narcotics Control Bureau) headquarters with its official emblem. - The record seizure statistics prominently displayed: ₹16,914 crore worth of narcotics in 2024. - Major busts recreated: the 500-560 kg cocaine seizure in Delhi (largest in North India), connections to South American cartels (Mexico's CJNG cartel logo visible on seized packages). - Drone interception technology—a Pakistani drone being captured, heroin packets falling. - Court proceedings—NDPS Act prosecution, bail hearings, the penalty structure visible (1 year for small quantity → 10-20 years for commercial quantity). - Prison cells with convicted traffickers—the human cost of both trafficking and enforcement. - Union Home Minister's "zero-tolerance" declaration as floating text. - The paradox: record seizures indicating both massive illegal trade AND active enforcement, neither eliminating the other. **Bottom of this zone:** A visual of the economic desperation that drives cultivation—a tribal family weighing illegal income against legitimate poverty, children needing education, medical bills unpaid. This humanizes the "criminal" side, showing why people take these risks. --- ## ZONE 6: THE ADVOCACY & FUTURE REALM (Bottom 10% — Reform Movement) **Pushing for Change — Activists, Politicians & International Context** The bottom zone represents the reform movement and future possibilities, rendered with more optimistic, forward-looking aesthetics—lighter colors emerging from the darkness above. **Left Section — The Great Legalisation Movement:** India's primary cannabis advocacy organization. Key elements: - Viki Vaurora (founder) depicted at a podium, speaking at India's first Medical Cannabis Conference (Bengaluru, May 2015). - Rick Simpson as a guest speaker—international expertise meeting Indian advocacy. - The December 2017 open letter to PM Modi floating as a historical document. - PM's Office response directing Health Ministry to examine benefits—a small victory visualized. - The ongoing Delhi High Court petition (W.P.(C) 7608/2019) represented as legal documents with "PENDING" stamp—since November 2024. - Free cannabis health centers for cancer patients—compassionate care in action. - Young activists with signs: "Har Ghar Vijaya" (Cannabis in Every Home), "Medicine Not Crime," "Respect Tradition." **Center Section — Political Support:** Cross-party political figures who have supported reform. Key elements: - Shashi Tharoor (Congress) with his June 2018 article "High Time India, Land of Bhang, Legalises Cannabis" floating beside him. - Tathagata Satpathy (BJD) at a Reddit AMA, casually admitting cannabis use—representing normalization. - Maneka Gandhi (BJP) at the 2017 Group of Ministers meeting suggesting medical marijuana legalization. - Dharamvir Gandhi's November 2016 Private Member's Bill to amend NDPS Act—Parliament building in background. - The December 2020 UN vote visualization: India voting to remove cannabis from Schedule IV, the 27-25 result shown as a narrow victory for global reform. - Quotes from various political figures floating: "elitist prohibition," "cultural heritage," "economic opportunity." **Right Section — International Context & Cautionary Tales:** Global developments informing Indian policy. Key elements: - Thailand's journey visualized as a cautionary arc: June 2022 decriminalization (11,000+ dispensaries, $1.2 billion projected industry) shown in bright colors, then June 2025 reversal (reclassification as "controlled herb") shown in fading colors. - Canadian legalization (2018) as a reference point. - Uruguay, various US states with legal status shown on a small world map. - Indian experts observing, taking notes—learning from others' successes and failures. - The question floating: "What path will India choose?" **Bottom Edge — The Future Imagined:** A hopeful vision of what regulated Indian cannabis could look like. Key elements: - Farmers legally cultivating with pride, fair prices guaranteed. - Patients accessing medicine without stigma or legal risk. - Traditional bhang culture preserved and respected. - Hemp industry providing sustainable alternatives—textiles, construction materials, bioplastics. - Research institutions freely investigating therapeutic potential. - The 31 million current consumers no longer criminalized. - Ancient Shiva temples and modern wellness clinics existing in harmony. - A question mark floating over all of it—the future is unwritten. --- ## THE CENTRAL CANNABIS PLANT — The Connecting Spine Running through ALL zones, providing visual continuity: **Roots (bottom):** Emerging from the shadow economy zone, roots tangled with rupee notes, evidence bags, and trafficking networks—representing how prohibition creates underground markets. Some roots reach toward tribal communities, showing economic dependency. **Lower Stem:** Passing through the enforcement zone, the stem shows signs of damage—cut marks, burn scars—representing eradication efforts. But it regrows, resilient. **Middle Stem:** In the human realm, the stem branches proliferate—some branches go toward legal bhang shops (healthy, green), others toward underground markets (darker, hidden). The plant reflects the legal patchwork it grows through. **Upper Stem:** In the Ayurvedic zone, the stem transforms—becoming part of modern medical packaging while retaining traditional form. Laboratory equipment surrounds it. Prescription labels attach to branches. **Flowering Tops:** In the festival realm, the plant blooms gloriously—flowers being offered at temples, incorporated into thandai preparations, smoked in chillums. Full sacred celebration. **Highest Reach:** The very top of the plant reaches toward Shiva himself, who receives it as offering. The divine smoke from his chillum merges with the plant's highest leaves, completing the cycle—what was given by the gods returns to the gods, with humans as intermediaries across millennia. --- ## TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS: **Style:** A fusion approach combining: - Indian miniature painting traditions (Rajasthani, Mughal, Pahari schools) for divine/traditional scenes—gold leaf accents, jewel-like colors, intricate pattern work, flattened perspective in some areas - Photorealistic rendering for contemporary scenes—modern equipment, urban environments, business settings - Documentary photography influence for enforcement/social scenes - Magical realism allowing impossible juxtapositions and scale shifts **Color Palette:** - Divine realm: Rich golds, deep indigos, sacred saffrons, transcendent whites - Festival realm: Explosive Holi colors—magentas, yellows, oranges, greens—maximum saturation - Human/legal realm: Varied by region—earthy browns and greens for rural areas, urban greys and glass for cities, government khakis and whites for official scenes - Medical realm: Clinical whites and greens with warm wood tones for Ayurvedic elements - Shadow economy: Darker earth tones, shadows, warning reds, moonlit blues - Advocacy realm: Hopeful greens, sunrise yellows, optimistic blues **Lighting:** - Divine realm: Ethereal glow emanating from sacred figures - Festival realm: Warm firelight, full moon silver, festival lamps - Human realm: Natural daylight varying by scene—harsh midday for enforcement, golden hour for agriculture, fluorescent for offices - Medical realm: Clean clinical lighting mixed with warm traditional lamp light - Shadow realm: Moonlight, flashlight beams, darkness with strategic illumination - Advocacy realm: Dawn light, suggesting new beginnings **Detail Level:** - Extremely high throughout—every face distinct, every texture rendered, every sign legible - Hidden details reward close inspection: statistics embedded in backgrounds, historical dates on documents, real brand names and place names throughout - Easter eggs: Famous quotes, legal citations, cultural references discoverable upon careful viewing **Dimensions:** - Ideal as a massive vertical scroll: 9:16 aspect ratio at minimum 8000 x 14222 pixels - Alternatively: 2:3 vertical at similar resolution - Designed to be viewed both as overwhelming whole AND in detailed sections - Suitable for: Large format print (gallery exhibition), interactive digital zoom experience, section-by-section social media sharing **Rendering Approach:** - Best created through combination of digital painting, photobashing, and AI-assisted generation followed by extensive manual refinement - Each zone could be generated separately then composited with careful attention to transitional elements - The central cannabis plant requires consistent rendering across all zones to maintain visual continuity - Text elements (signs, documents, floating quotes) should be added in post-processing for legibility --- ## EMOTIONAL JOURNEY: Viewing from top to bottom, the viewer experiences: 1. **Awe** — Divine origins, cosmic significance, spiritual reverence 2. **Joy** — Festival celebration, community, ancient tradition alive 3. **Confusion/Frustration** — Legal contradictions, bureaucratic complexity, arbitrary distinctions 4. **Hope/Professionalism** — Medical progress, legitimate business, scientific advancement 5. **Darkness/Concern** — Illegal trade, enforcement, human costs on all sides 6. **Cautious Optimism** — Reform movements, political support, possible futures The overall message: India's relationship with cannabis is irreducibly complex—simultaneously sacred and criminal, traditional and modern, healing and harmful, celebrated and stigmatized. No simple narrative captures it. This single image attempts to hold all these contradictions simultaneously, as India itself does. --- **Final Note:** This image should feel like a living document of a nation at a crossroads with a plant it has known for millennia—honoring 31 million current users, ancient traditions stretching back to the Vedas, and the uncertain but potentially transformative future ahead. "Har Ghar Vijaya" floats somewhere in the composition—the aspirational dream against the complex reality.

Yet this consumption occurs within a paradoxical legal framework where the same plant can be sacred prasad offered at Shiva temples or grounds for imprisonment up to 20 years. The NDPS Act of 1985, enacted under American pressure, created an arbitrary distinction that preserved bhang (leaves and seeds) while criminalizing ganja (flowering tops) and charas (resin)—a compromise that simultaneously honored ancient traditions and satisfied international treaty obligations.


As of 2024-2025, India stands at an inflection point: Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh are piloting industrial hemp cultivation, medical cannabis through Ayurvedic frameworks has emerged as a rapidly growing industry, and advocacy movements are pushing for decriminalization, even as enforcement agencies report record seizures exceeding ₹16,914 crore worth of narcotics in 2024.


The Complete Story of Cannabis in India


The NDPS Act creates a patchwork of legality

The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act of 1985 forms the backbone of India's cannabis regulation. Section 2(iii) defines cannabis with a critical exemption—it explicitly excludes seeds and leaves when not accompanied by flowering tops—which forms the legal basis for bhang's continued legality. This distinction means that the same cannabis plant produces both legal and illegal substances depending on which part is used.


Penalties under Section 20 scale dramatically by quantity. For ganja, possessing up to 1 kilogram attracts imprisonment up to one year and a ₹10,000 fine (small quantity), while 20 kilograms or more (commercial quantity) triggers 10-20 years imprisonment plus ₹1-2 lakh fines. For the more potent charas, these thresholds drop to 100 grams and 1 kilogram respectively. Repeat offenses can result in penalties of 1.5 times the original punishment, with serious repeat trafficking potentially attracting 30 years imprisonment.


Section 10 empowers state governments to regulate cultivation, production, and sale of cannabis—excluding charas, which remains under central control. This provision has enabled the divergent state policies that characterize India's cannabis landscape. Section 14 provides special dispensation for cultivation serving industrial purposes (fiber, seeds) or horticulture, forming the legal foundation for the emerging hemp industry.


Bhang enjoys legal status in most states

Multiple High Court rulings have affirmed bhang's exclusion from NDPS prohibition. The Karnataka High Court in 2022 granted bail to a man caught with 29 kilograms of bhang, explicitly stating that "bhang is NOT prohibited under NDPS Act." Similar rulings in Sevaram vs State of Rajasthan (1992), Madhukar vs State of Maharashtra, and Arjun Singh vs State of Haryana have consistently upheld this distinction.


States with legal, regulated bhang sales include Uttar Pradesh (government-licensed shops in Varanasi, Lucknow, Mathura), Rajasthan (widely available in Jaisalmer, Jaipur, Pushkar), Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Odisha, and Punjab. Gujarat created a notable paradox in February 2017 by legalizing bhang in a prohibition state, removing it from the "intoxicating drugs" list under Section 23 of the Gujarat Prohibition Act while maintaining alcohol prohibition.


Several states take stricter positions. Assam explicitly prohibits both ganja and bhang under the Assam Ganja and Bhang Prohibition Act of 1958. Maharashtra requires licenses for bhang under the Bombay Prohibition Act of 1949. Tamil Nadu maintains complete prohibition on sale and use, while Kerala issues no licenses and applies NDPS provisions strictly.


Hemp cultivation pioneers new economic possibilities

Uttarakhand blazed the trail in July 2018 as India's first state to issue commercial hemp cultivation licenses. The state exercised powers under Section 14 of the NDPS Act, establishing a THC limit of ≤0.3% and designating the Centre for Aromatic Plants in Selaqui, Dehradun as the nodal agency. Licensing requires application to the District Magistrate with land ownership documentation, character certificates, and storage facility proof. Critically, sales are restricted to government-authorized buyers only.


The hemp industry, currently valued at USD 2-3 million, is projected to grow to USD 500-700 million. Approximately 100 hemp startups now operate across India, with most sourcing raw material from Uttarakhand. Products span textiles, cosmetics, health foods, construction materials, paper, and bio-plastics. FSSAI's November 2021 notification recognizing hemp seeds as food ingredients—with THC limits of maximum 5 mg/kg—opened the food sector.


Himachal Pradesh represents the most significant recent development. In September 2024, the state assembly passed a resolution to legalize controlled cannabis cultivation for industrial and medicinal purposes. A cabinet-approved pilot study commenced in January 2025, with regions including Kullu, Chamba, and Mandi identified as suitable. The state requires 24-hour CCTV surveillance and geo-tagging of licensed facilities—a response to its paradoxical status as both a major illegal production center (Malana Cream) and an aspiring regulated market.


Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have hemp policies at various stages of development, while Manipur announced consideration of legalization in February 2020, potentially leveraging its proximity to the Golden Triangle.


Medical cannabis operates through Ayurvedic frameworks

India's medical cannabis pathway operates through the Ministry of AYUSH rather than conventional pharmaceutical channels. Cannabis—known as Vijaya in Sanskrit—is recognized in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India and classified as a Schedule E-1 drug under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act. Over 191 classical formulations mention cannabis as an ingredient across texts including the Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, and Sharngadhara Samhita.


The January 2022 Central Government affirmation that medical Vijaya use is permitted empowered states to license cultivation for medical purposes. Unlike Western pharmaceutical products, Ayurvedic cannabis formulations derived from traditional texts do not require clinical trials. However, products require manufacture under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act with state AYUSH department approval, and internal-use preparations require prescriptions from registered medical practitioners.


In 2024, the Ministry of AYUSH introduced stricter oversight, requiring state drug authorities to seek central clearance before approving Ayurvedic cannabis drugs. A September 2024 public notice clarified that the Ministry does not endorse "cannabis experts/hempvaidyas/cannabis doctors" as legitimate AYUSH specializations.


Recent court judgments have clarified important procedural points. The Bombay High Court in September 2024 ruled that ganja under NDPS covers only flowering/fruiting tops and excludes seeds, leaves, stems, and stalks—granting bail where seized material lacked flowering tops. Meanwhile, the Kerala High Court clarified that growing any cannabis plant is illegal regardless of flowering status, as cultivation itself is banned under Section 8(b).


Religious traditions weave cannabis into sacred practice


Cannabis holds profound significance in Hindu religious tradition, particularly within Shaivite worship. According to mythology, cannabis originated during the Samudra Manthan (churning of the cosmic ocean)—either as the plant that sprouted from a drop of fallen amrit (nectar of immortality) or as the remedy the Devas prepared to cool Shiva after he consumed the poison Halahala. Shiva is venerated as the "Lord of Bhang" (Bhang ka Devta), depicted in centuries of art smoking ganja from a chillum, his half-closed eyes attributed to either deep meditation or cannabis's effects.


The Atharvaveda (c. 1500-1000 BCE) lists bhanga among five sacred plants that relieve anxiety, describing it as a "source of happiness," "joy-giver," and "liberator." The text notes that a guardian angel was believed to inhabit its leaves. The Sushruta Samhita (c. 600 BCE) recommends bhanga for treating catarrh, phlegm, and diarrhea, establishing its medicinal credentials millennia before Western pharmaceutical recognition.


Festival consumption follows regional patterns


Mahashivratri sees the strongest bhang traditions in Varanasi, where preparations occur on the famous ghats, and in Mathura, where the practice is believed to have been introduced by Shiva's followers. Nepal's Pashupatinath Temple draws approximately 100,000 Hindus, with Nepal lifting its cannabis ban during the festival. Government-licensed bhang shops in Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan experience peak sales during both Mahashivratri and Holi, when bhang thandai (cannabis-infused milk drink with almonds, pistachios, and spices) becomes nearly ubiquitous across North India.


Beyond drinks, festival preparations include bhang pakoras (fried snacks), bhang ki chutney (particularly in Uttarakhand's hills), bhang goli (freshly ground cannabis balls), bhang gujiya (stuffed sweets), and bhang halwa. The Ambubachi Mela in Assam presents a paradox—thousands consume cannabis despite the state's 1958 prohibition, with police reportedly turning a blind eye to religious consumption.


Sadhu traditions embody cannabis spirituality


Naga Sadhus—warrior-ascetics worshipping Lord Shiva who reside primarily in Himalayan caves—smoke cannabis through the chillum (Shiv Muli) as integral to their sadhana (spiritual practice). Their bodies smeared with ash and hair worn in matted locks like Shiva, they appear publicly primarily during the Kumbh Mela occurring every twelve years. Cannabis serves multiple spiritual functions: avoiding worldly distraction, strengthening meditation, and reducing sexual desire.


The Aghoris, an extreme ascetic sect, consume bhang daily as fundamental religious practice, alongside more transgressive behaviors including smearing bodies with cremation-ground ash and using human skulls as begging bowls. Regular sadhus similarly consume cannabis via chillum smoking or bhang drinks, claiming "Normal people need food, we need ganja." Notably, women sadhvis generally do not partake in chillum smoking.


Sikh Nihangs represent an unusual tradition of bhang consumption during the Hola Mohalla festival, despite Guru Nanak's teachings against mind-altering substances and the Sikh Rehat Maryada's official prohibition. Indian Sufis similarly incorporate bhang into their practice, believing the spirit of Khidr inhabits the cannabis plant.


The Himalayan states navigate between tradition and trafficking


Uttarakhand balances hemp promise with enforcement challenges

Beyond its pioneering hemp policy, Uttarakhand maintains deep traditional cannabis connections. British colonial Gazetteers documented cultivation in Almora and Nainital, where the plant was used for bhangela (traditional clothes), sacks, ropes, and fish nets. Traditional foods including bhang ki chutney and bhang ke pakora remain common in hill communities.


The state's hemp licensing faces a fundamental challenge: maintaining THC below 0.3% proves difficult with indigenous Indian strains, which typically contain 4-5% THC. Many farmers rely on wild cannabis collection under separate "collection licenses" where THC limits don't apply, while commercial cultivation increasingly depends on imported seeds. All thirteen districts are eligible for cultivation, with Chamoli (elevation 800-8,000 meters) and surrounding areas identified as optimal.


Himachal Pradesh confronts its paradoxical reputation

The remote village of Malana (population ~1,700) in the Parvati Valley has achieved global fame for "Malana Cream"—hashish that won High Times Cannabis Cup awards in 1994 and 1996 and commands approximately $250 per tola (11.66 grams) in Amsterdam markets. Produced through traditional hand-rubbing techniques, the charas contains 14-22% THC. The valley's lore holds that Shiva and Parvati themselves brought cannabis seeds here.


An estimated 2,100 hectares are cultivated annually across the Parvati Valley, producing varieties including Tosh Balls, Rashol Cream, and Waichin Charas. Yet this production is entirely illegal, driving intense enforcement: 70 lakh (7 million) cannabis plants destroyed between 2023 and mid-2025, with 5,004 NDPS cases registered in the same period. Seizures included 919 kg charas and 32.9 kg heroin.

The state faces a separate crisis with chitta (heroin-based synthetic drugs), which accounts for 60% of drug addiction cases—spillover from Punjab's trafficking networks. This has prompted an "Anti-Chitta" campaign launched by Chief Minister Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu in December 2024, alongside the new Himachal Pradesh Drugs and Controlled Substances Act introducing stricter penalties.


Rajasthan operates government-authorized bhang infrastructure

Rajasthan permits bhang sale through licensed shops while prohibiting cultivation, requiring imports from production-legal states like Uttar Pradesh. The Rajasthan Excise Department issues retail licenses (₹10,000 wholesale license fee), with sales governed by the Rajasthan Issue and Sale Prices of Bhang Rules of 1964. Famous bhang shops in Jaisalmer have operated since the 1970s with family lineage, serving chocolate, sweets, juices, and buttermilk versions.


Cultural acceptance runs deep, with consumption integrated into Holi and Mahashivratri celebrations across tourist destinations including Jaipur, Pushkar, and Jodhpur. Enforcement focuses on charas and ganja trafficking rather than traditional bhang consumption, though the state faces cross-border challenges—15 drone-based heroin seizures from Pakistani drones occurred in 2024.


Uttar Pradesh anchors North India's bhang culture

Varanasi serves as India's bhang capital, with preparations occurring on the famous ghats and government-authorized shops throughout the city. Famous establishments include Badal Thandai (Gowdolia Chowk), considered the most renowned, and Blue Lassi (Godowlia Road), a 70-year-old institution offering 75 varieties. License fees reportedly reach ₹2 million (~$26,000) one-time payment, with monthly quotas assigned based on capacity.


Mathura, Krishna's birthplace, maintains similar traditions with the "Sarkari Bhang Theka" near the bus stop. The state legalized hemp cultivation for R&D purposes, with CSIR-NBRI obtaining a license in December 2018. Historical records show UP had India's largest cannabis consumption—287,926 pounds in 1934-35.


Punjab faces India's worst drug crisis

The state's cannabis landscape is overshadowed by a severe opioid epidemic. 75% of all drugs seized in India in 2020 were in Punjab, with 15.4% of residents reporting substance use in a 2022 survey. The crisis stems from the 553-kilometer border with Pakistan and proximity to the Golden Crescent (Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran).


Drone smuggling has exploded: 179 cases in 2024 versus only 3 in 2021, delivering 187 kg heroin and 5 kg methamphetamine. Chitta (heroin-based drug) dominates consumption, affecting over 50% of addicts at ₹2,000/gram, while ice (methamphetamine) is emerging at ₹5,000/gram. An estimated 230,000+ opioid-dependent people include 697,000 children aged 10-17 among drug users.


Chief Minister Bhagwant Mann transferred 10,000+ police officers in February 2024 due to alleged police-drug nexus, and the Special Task Force was renamed "Anti-Narcotics Task Force" in August 2024. Cannabis consumption, including traditional bhang during festivals, continues but receives minimal policy attention compared to the opioid crisis.


Delhi combines high consumption with intensifying enforcement

The national capital consumes 38.2 tonnes of cannabis annually, ranking third globally, with a 3.8% prevalence rate among India's highest. Yet Delhi also led 2024-2025 drug trafficking cases with ₹3.07 thousand crore in seizure values. A major bust recovered 500-560 kg cocaine (largest in North India history) worth ₹5,000+ crore, with connections to South American cartels including Mexico's Cártel de Jalisco Nueva Generación.


Government-authorized bhang shops exist in Delhi-NCR, including Theka Bhang in Noida Sector 15, with availability increasing during Holi and Shivaratri. The CBD market is estimated at $150 million by 2025, with 500+ local companies producing and distributing products. Pahar Ganj near New Delhi Railway Station remains known for cannabis availability despite illegal status.


Bihar, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh maintain traditional practices

Bihar is among states where bhang production itself is legal, with a long tradition of consumption during festivals. Construction workers have historically used bhang to fight fatigue. Chhattisgarh shows higher cannabis prevalence alongside UP, Punjab, Sikkim, and Delhi, with significant tribal populations maintaining traditional plant medicine practices. Both states, along with Jharkhand, lack formal hemp legalization frameworks, with enforcement focused on preventing trafficking rather than traditional use.

Naxalite involvement in illegal cannabis cultivation in Central India adds a security dimension, with tribal cultivators sometimes caught between economic necessity and insurgent networks.


Southern and coastal states show diverse approaches


Gujarat's prohibition paradox

India's only complete alcohol prohibition state legalized bhang in February 2017, removing it from the "intoxicating drugs" list. Minister Pradipsinh Jadeja justified the decision as respecting "sentiments of public at large" regarding consumption as "prasad of Lord Shiva," while noting bhang is "less intoxicating as compared to ganja."


Despite prohibition, Gujarat faces significant challenges with illegal drug trade. In 2024, cannabis plantations were discovered in multiple locations including a 3-acre operation worth crores in Banaskatha's Kankrej. Hydroponic cultivation was busted in Ahmedabad residential flats with approximately 100 pots seized. Mundra Port saw ₹21,000 crore worth of drugs seized between 2021-2023. Yet a 2019 government survey recorded only 0.1% cannabis use—among the lowest nationally.


Maharashtra's enforcement remains notably relaxed

Mumbai ranks sixth globally for cannabis consumption at 32.4 tonnes annually, with enforcement described as "notably relaxed compared to other regions" and cannabis remaining "relatively accessible" in areas like Colaba. Street prices range from ₹100-700 per gram for average quality. The Bombay Prohibition Act requires licenses for bhang under Section 66(1)(b), distinguishing it from Gujarat's outright legalization.


A significant September 2024 Bombay High Court ruling clarified that ganja under NDPS covers only flowering/fruiting tops, excluding seeds, leaves, stems, and stalks—potentially affecting future prosecutions. The state expanded its Anti-Narcotics Task Force with 346 new posts in February 2025, aligning with the Union Home Minister's "zero-tolerance" declaration.


Goa tightens its historically permissive reputation

The state's historical connection to hippie trail culture and its reputation as a drug destination is confronting stricter regulation. The Goa Tourism Safety Policy 2025 requires nightclubs to cease music by 1:00 AM, bars to stop serving alcohol at 12:30 AM, and prohibits alcohol consumption within 200 meters of the waterline. GPS-tracked ride-hailing systems around nightlife hubs and educational awareness campaigns at airports signal a shift in approach.


In 2024, the Anti-Narcotic Cell seized 92.988 kg of drugs valued at ₹6.94 crore, predominantly ganja at 73.417 kg. Beach parties and casinos, described as "mainstays of tourism," also function as "channels for drug flow." Officials acknowledge Goa remains a "soft target for drug traffickers," with overdose deaths raising serious questions about enforcement effectiveness. A concerning shift from marijuana to chemical drugs has intensified risks.


Kerala maintains strict prohibition despite Ayurvedic heritage

Despite being called the "home of authentic Ayurveda" with globally recognized stature in traditional medicine, Kerala maintains strict cannabis prohibition. Bhang is not legal—the state issues no licenses, and possession can lead to penalties. The Kerala High Court dismissed a petition from someone with cannabis plants, clarifying that growing any cannabis plant is illegal regardless of flowering status.


This creates an ironic situation where Kerala's robust Ayurvedic industry cannot legally incorporate cannabis despite its prominence in classical texts including the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita. The 2019 survey recorded approximately 0.1% cannabis use—among the lowest nationally, similar to Tamil Nadu.


Tamil Nadu enforces India's strictest approach

The state maintains "Zero Cultivation" status achieved through aggressive eradication in the 1990s. Enforcement statistics are striking: 45,800 prosecutions and 68,055 arrests between 2021-2025, with over 109,000 kg cannabis seized since 2021. Conviction rates rose from 80% in 2022 to 88% by June 2025. Cannabis prevalence stands at just 0.1%—35th nationally against the 1.2% national average.


Cannabis smuggling routes flow from Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Telangana, Manipur, Karnataka, and Goa. The state also serves as transit for Sri Lanka via sea routes. Emerging trends include ganja-infused chocolates targeting students and approximately 15% of transactions via mobile apps. Bhang sale and use are completely restricted without exceptions.


Karnataka lacks official infrastructure despite legal bhang

While the Karnataka High Court's 2022 ruling confirmed bhang from cannabis leaves is not NDPS-prohibited, no officially authorized bhang shops exist in Bangalore or elsewhere. No regulatory framework for retail sale has been established, creating a gap between legal status and practical availability.


Cannabis enforcement follows national NDPS frameworks, described as "generally ignored at user level" for small quantities but with recent crackdowns intensifying. Notably, HempCann Solutions established India's first medical cannabis clinic—Vedi Wellness Centre—in Koramangala, Bengaluru in 2020, selling legal cannabis-based oils through the Ayurvedic framework. The state's May 2025 passage of the COTPA Amendment Act raising tobacco purchase age to 21 and banning hookah bars suggests trending toward stricter substance regulation.


Odisha's Sheelavathi strain dominates India's illicit market

Odisha presents perhaps India's most complex cannabis picture. Traditional practices run deep: Trinath Puja on Mondays involves village elders and youth ceremonially smoking cannabis openly. Cannabis was historically offered as prasad at Shiva temples and mixed into sacred food, with the century-old Gharsana ritual at Akhandalamani temple involving bhang.


The 2022 government ban prohibiting cannabis at all Shiva shrines ahead of Kanwar Yatra disrupted these traditions, generating concern from temple officials about ending century-old practices. Meanwhile, a unique cannabis strain called Sheelavathi from Odisha's tribal districts now accounts for over 70% of the 23 lakh kg ganja confiscated by NCB nationwide over four years—surpassing famous varieties including Malana Cream, Idukki Gold, and Mysore Mango.


Active cultivation occurs in six mountainous districts: Koraput, Malkangiri, Rayagada, Gajapati, Boudh, and Kandhamal. Police destroyed 28,000 hectares of plantations between 2021-2023 (highest nationally), with 102.2 tonnes seized in January-July 2024 worth approximately $30 million. Drug networks pay tribals ₹10,000 per acre, providing supplies for yields of 2.5-3 quintals worth ₹50,000 investment but selling at ₹1,500-2,500/kg locally and much higher in metros.


The Northeast emerges as cultivation and consumption hub

Sikkim leads India with 7.3% cannabis use—more than double most states. Nagaland and Odisha tie at 4.7%, with Arunachal Pradesh at 4.2%. Cannabis grows wild throughout the Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam—the Latin name Cannabis indica suggesting indigenous growth.


Assam maintains India's strictest stance through the 1958 Ganja and Bhang Prohibition Act, explicitly banning both. Yet paradoxically, thousands consume during the Ambubachi Mela with police not intervening against religious consumption while fining tobacco smokers. Varieties including "Assam Hash Plant" from Barak Valley produce distinctive tropical fruit and spearmint scents.


Manipur represents future potential. Chief Minister N. Biren Singh announced in February 2020 that the state was considering legalizing cannabis cultivation for medical and industrial purposes. Ukhrul district bordering Myanmar has produced cannabis for 50+ years, dominated by the Tangkhul tribe (Naga people). "Manipuri weed" is considered among India's finest—featuring unique purple/blue streaks and strong minty taste. However, the state's position at the edge of the Golden Triangle creates complex trafficking challenges.


The medical and business landscape is rapidly evolving

Ayurvedic products find growing consumer acceptance

The legal medical cannabis market operates through traditional Ayurvedic frameworks. Trailokya Vijaya Vati—a classical formulation containing 250-500mg cannabis leaf plus Vansh Lochan (bamboo)—is the most widely available product, offered by multiple brands including Hempstreet, Hampa, CannaBlithe, and Cannazo. Full-spectrum Vijaya oils containing both CBD and THC (Indian wild-race strains are naturally THC-rich) are available in potencies from 500mg to 6500mg.


Distribution occurs through D2C websites with doctor consultation features, aggregator platforms (ItsHemp, CBD Store India), networks of trained Ayurvedic practitioners (Hempstreet claims 60,000+ doctors across 18,000+ clinics), and limited brick-and-mortar presence including BOHECO's Mumbai flagship stores. Prescription verification systems control access to Schedule E-1 products requiring medical supervision.


Major companies are attracting significant investment

BOHECO (Bombay Hemp Company), founded in 2013, has raised $9.53 million across 10 rounds, including investors like the late Ratan Tata, Peak XV Partners' Rajan Anandan, and IIMA Ventures. Revenue reached ₹7.5 crore in FY2025 (up from ₹5.3 crore), with 30-40% month-on-month growth and 45%+ repeat customer rates. The company operates farms, labs, and branded retail across wellness, nutrition, and textile verticals.


Hempstreet, founded in 2019 with $3 million in funding, claims to be India's first research-to-retail venture, maintaining CSIR partnerships and a blockchain-based "seed to sale" tracking system. International partnerships include MGC Pharma (UK) and Gynica (Israel). Awshad (2021) operates in CBD wellness and has entered pet care with Vijaya oil for animals. Cannarma received pre-seed funding at a ₹17 crore valuation in November 2023.


Research infrastructure is developing

CSIR-IIIM (Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine) in Jammu operates a major cannabis research project targeting neuropathies and cancer, signing a 2020 agreement with IndusCann (Canada). CSIR-IHBT in Palampur focuses on Himalayan bioresources including medicinal plants, working with 500+ farming families. The first-ever government license for cannabis research was issued in 2017 through a CSIR-BOHECO collaboration.


The medical cannabis market is projected to grow from $13.13 million (2023) to $26 million by 2028 at 14.64% CAGR. The Asia-Pacific CBD market is projected to reach $1.75 billion by 2029 from $173 million in 2021.


Social attitudes reveal generational and regional divides

Urban-rural and class patterns persist

Traditional acceptance runs strongest in rural areas, particularly Himalayan regions and tribal communities, where consumption remains normalized within religious and medicinal contexts. MP Tathagata Satpathy captured this normalization: "People smoking chillum is a common sight. It is not something you make note of, just as you don't notice someone drinking water or having tea."


Cannabis was historically characterized as the "intoxicant of the poor," with upper classes consuming alcohol while viewing ganja and charas as lower-class substances—though bhang during Holi crossed class boundaries. Satpathy characterized the NDPS criminalization as "elitist," reflecting class bias. Ironically, imported "Canadian hydroponic" cannabis has now become popular among "fashionable classes," inverting historical patterns.

Significant gender disparity persists: 5% of males versus only 0.6% of females report cannabis use. Patriarchal social arrangements restrict women's access and create stronger disapproval, though substance use among younger urban women is increasing.


Stigma remains substantial but is evolving

Strong social stigma persists, with cannabis associated with mental illness, criminality, and "gateway drug" narratives. Family pressure is the most common reason (70%) for seeking cannabis treatment, and internalized stigma affects users significantly.


Media portrayal has shifted dramatically. Historical Hindi cinema portrayed cannabis negatively—associated with hippie culture or criminals. Post-2000s films show urban middle-class protagonists using cannabis for relaxation, including Shaitan (2011), Go Goa Gone (2013—India's first Hindi stoner comedy), and Kapoor & Sons (2016). Director Bejoy Nambiar noted: "There's a culture of smoking up among today's youth and it's becoming more and more relevant in our movies."


College-age youth show increasing positive attitudes; 42% of Bangalore college students had seen cannabis content in films, and over one-third had searched online for cannabis products. Youth frequently argue that alcohol and tobacco remain legal despite health risks while cannabis is culturally ingrained.


Advocacy movements push for reform


The Great Legalisation Movement leads organized efforts

Founded in November 2014 in Bangalore by former journalist Viki Vaurora, GLM India has organized India's first Medical Cannabis Conference (Bengaluru, May 2015 with Rick Simpson), produced a seven-episode documentary web series, and established free cannabis health centers for cancer patients. Their December 2017 open letter to PM Narendra Modi prompted the PM's Office to direct the Ministry of Health to examine potential benefits (February 2018).


GLM's Delhi High Court petition (W.P.(C) 7608/2019), ongoing as of November 2024, seeks rules permitting and regulating medical and industrial cannabis. The petition argues the government's domestic stance contradicts its position in international forums.


Political support has emerged across party lines

Shashi Tharoor (Congress MP) wrote an influential June 2018 article titled "High Time India, Land of Bhang, Legalises Cannabis," advocating regulation for economic, health, and anti-corruption benefits. Tathagata Satpathy (former BJD MP) openly admitted cannabis use during a 2015 Reddit AMA. Maneka Gandhi (BJP Union Minister) suggested legalizing medical marijuana at a 2017 Group of Ministers meeting. Dharamvir Gandhi (former AAP, then Independent MP) introduced a Private Member's Bill in November 2016 seeking to amend the NDPS Act to allow regulated supply of "non-synthetic" intoxicants.


India's December 2020 vote at the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs—supporting removal of cannabis from Schedule IV of the 1961 Convention (passed 27-25)—signaled potential policy shift at the international level.


Thailand's reversal offers cautionary lessons

Thailand's June 2022 decriminalization created 11,000+ dispensaries and a projected $1.2 billion industry, briefly serving as a model for Indian advocates. However, Thailand's June 2025 reversal—reclassifying cannabis as a "controlled herb" restricted to medical use after a 2024 poll showed majority support for narcotic relisting—demonstrates regulatory challenges. Indian experts note Thailand's regulatory failure as a cautionary tale for overly rapid liberalization.


Historical context explains current contradictions

Cannabis use in India predates recorded history, with the Atharvaveda (c. 1500-1000 BCE) listing bhanga among five sacred plants. Medieval Ayurvedic texts established extensive medicinal applications. Portuguese colonial observations from the 16th century documented widespread use for work, appetite, and labor relief.


The Indian Hemp Drugs Commission of 1894—appointed by the Government of India at the House of Commons' request and presided over by W. Mackworth Young—produced a 3,281-page report based on testimony from approximately 1,200 witnesses including doctors, yogis, fakirs, peasants, and hemp dealers. The Commission concluded that "moderate use of these drugs is the rule, excessive use comparatively exceptional" and that "moderate use practically produces no ill effects." It explicitly rejected total prohibition as "neither necessary nor expedient," warning it would generate religious outcry, drive consumers to dangerous substances, and create illicit markets.


India resisted American pressure to criminalize cannabis for nearly 25 years after the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Indian negotiators achieved a critical victory: the treaty definition explicitly excludes leaves and seeds, preserving bhang's legality. However, under intensifying Reagan-era pressure and Cold War alliance needs, the Rajiv Gandhi government enacted the NDPS Act on November 14, 1985—which MP Satpathy later called "an overreaction to a scare created by the United States."


Conclusion: A nation at a crossroads

India's cannabis landscape reflects fundamental tensions—between ancient sacred tradition and modern prohibition, between village tolerance and urban enforcement, between Ayurvedic legitimacy and pharmaceutical regulation, between state economic development interests and central enforcement mandates. The emerging hemp industry and medical cannabis frameworks offer pathways toward regulated markets that honor cultural heritage while capturing economic value. Record enforcement seizures of ₹16,914 crore in 2024 simultaneously demonstrate both the scale of illegal trade and the limits of prohibition.


The trajectory appears to favor gradual liberalization through Ayurvedic and industrial pathways rather than recreational legalization. State-by-state experimentation—Uttarakhand's hemp cultivation, Himachal Pradesh's pilot program, Gujarat's bhang exception—creates natural experiments that will shape national policy. Thailand's regulatory reversal offers a cautionary tale against moving too quickly without adequate frameworks.


The 31 million Indians who currently consume cannabis products—through government-authorized bhang shops, underground networks, or medical Ayurvedic preparations—represent a population larger than most countries. Their practices, spanning sacred temple offerings to urban recreational use, will continue regardless of legal status. The question facing Indian policymakers is not whether cannabis culture will persist, but how to shape a regulatory environment that minimizes harms, respects traditions, captures economic value, and acknowledges a relationship with the plant stretching back thousands of years. Sacred, Banned & Booming: The Complete Story of Cannabis in India

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